White Collar Crimes And Street Crimes - 4005 Words

In today’s society, both white-collar crimes such as counterfeiting and street crimes such as burglary are prevalent. Both white-collar crimes and street crimes affect society —sometimes in similar ways and in other cases, in much different ways. More often than not, white-collar crimes directly cause more financial detriment than anything else, while street crimes more often than not directly cause more physical harm. The emotional implications of both types of crime are also significant and should not be overlooked. The emotional trauma of having been the victim of a street crime like robbery can be analogous in severity to the trauma of having been the victim of a white-collar crime such as embezzlement, so it is difficult to determine whether or not one type of crime causes more trauma of this sort than the other. In measuring and tracking trends in crime there are two main types of methods used. The first in England and Wales is recorded crime statistics which is obtained by the police. It focuses on the trends and patterns in crime as well as data collected by law enforcement agencies which is crime that is concerned by the public or otherwise crime brought to the attention of the authorities. Undertaken in 1981, the second approach in crime measurement is the British Crime Survey (BCS) which has run sporadically since then, although it is now carried out annually. It is now usually presumed that victimisation surveys are a more accurate measure of crime levelsShow MoreRelatedWhite Collar Crimes And Street Crimes1431 Words   |  6 PagesCrimes are one of the many things that all humans have in common. Whether it be a serious crime or not, everyone can commit a crime and go to jail for it. There are two types of crime that can be considered complete opposites of each other. They are white collar crimes and street crimes. White collar crimes are considered nonviolent crimes committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his/her occupation such as fraud, embezzlement, or bribery. On the other hand,Read MoreStreet Crime And White Collar Crimes766 Words   |  4 Pageseconomic crimes goes up as well. Either it’s the street crimes or th e white-collar crimes/corporate crimes but which of is a wide spread crime. Street crime and white-collar crimes affect the people negatively. You would be hurting yourself and others. Even though, street crimes are more violent then the white-collar. White collar effect you devastating you finacially and emotionally. Street crimes are more generally physical effect. White-collar crimes have financial issue and street crime have safetyRead MoreWhite Collar Crimes And Street Crimes1083 Words   |  5 PagesWhite-collar crimes are just as prevalent today as ordinary street crimes. Studies show that criminal acts committed by white-collar criminals continue to increase due to unforeseen opportunities presented in the corporate world, but these crimes are often overlooked or minimally publicized in reference to criminal acts on the street. Many street crimes are viewed as unnecessary, horrendous crimes because they are committed by lower class citizens, whereas white collar crimes are illegal acts committedRead MoreEssay about White Collar Crime vs. Street Crime665 Words   |  3 PagesWhite Collar Crime vs. Street Crime One problem that plagues our society is crime. Crime is all around us in our everyday lives. Daily we hear of murders, robberies, and rapes. These are categorized as street crimes. For many people, such crimes are the only tragic crimes, the ones that are senseless and preventable. In Finsterbuschs book, Taking Sides, another variety of crime is exposed. This other form of crime is white collar crime. Both have victims, and the effects of bothRead MoreWhite Collar Street Crime Essay1198 Words   |  5 PagesWhite-Collar Crime or Street Crime: Which is More Costly to Society? What is crime? Merriam-Webster defines crime as â€Å"an act or the commission of an act that is forbidden or the omission of a duty that is commanded by a public law and that makes the offender liable to punishment by that law† (Merriam-Webster). There are many types of crime but the two this paper will focus on are street crime and white- collar crime. There is no definitive definition of street crime, but it is generallyRead MoreEssay on White-Collar Crime Vs. Street Crime1070 Words   |  5 Pageswith crimes that are considered street crimes. What most people don’t hear about on the news is what is considered white-collar crime, sometimes known as corporate crime. White-collar crime not only is less reported in the media but also receives weaker punishments than street crime. This paper will first discuss the similarities between the two types of crime and then explain why their punishments are strongly different. Lets first start off by defining each one of these types of crime. StreetRead MoreThe Nature And Organization Of Corporate Environmental Crime961 Words   |  4 Pagesthe nature and organisation of corporate environmental crime. Part II explores the offenders of corporate environmental crime. Part III determines the risk factors for corporate offending. Finally, Part IV analyses environmental regulations. I. NATURE AND ORGANISATION Corporate environmental crime constitutes an important part of white-collar crime. The notion ‘white collar crime’ was introduced by Edwin Sutherland and refers to a crime ‘committed by a person of respectability and high socialRead MorePrisoners Rights954 Words   |  4 PagesSociety Tiffany Horvath SOC 305: Crime and Society Instructor: Efua Akoma October 28, 2013 If you asked 100 random people to describe a criminal, they would describe someone uneducated, in and out of the justice system, a minority or just a basic street criminal. â€Å"National surveys suggest that when Americans think about crime, they see the face of a black jobless high-school dropout from a broken home† (Society, 2013). â€Å"Federal researchers found, for example, that many prisonersRead More The Tragedy of White-Collar Crime Essay examples932 Words   |  4 Pagesin a legitimate occupation and committing, an illegal act is a white-collar crime. â€Å"To be more concise white - collar crime is define as any illegal act, punishable by a criminal sanction, that is committed in the courses of a legitimate occupation or pursuit by a corporation or by an otherwise respectable individual of high social standing† (Conklin, 2007, Criminology, p. 69). This is not to say that all white-collar crime is committed by upper income or affluent persons. The SociologistRead MoreEssay on An Explanation of Corporate Crime856 Words   |  4 PagesAn Explanation of Corporate Crime This analytical source review will analyse and detail the views and opinions of four different sources including: The sociology of corporate crime: an obituary, Corporate Crime, Corporate Crime at the tip of the iceberg and White Collar and Corporate Crime. The topic this review will be primarily concerned with is corporate crime, the topic will be examined and the notion of ignorance towards the subject will be addressed. However

Human Development Index ( Hdi ) - 2211 Words

After market reforms where announced in the late 1970s by Deng Xiaoping (paramount leader), China has been among the most rapidly growing economies in the world. Although having serious natural resource scarcity this growth has been speared headed through 80% of china’s exports are manufactured goods making china heavily dependant on international markets (export-led) . The Gross Domestic Product per capita (GDP) of china in 1962 was at record lows of 130.14 USD, since market reforms, China regularly exceeding 10% GDP growth annually (figure 1) and was last recorded at 6416.18 US dollars in 2015 . Gross national income (GNI) is the total income received by all households, including that earned in foreign countries. China is ranked 113th in 2013 in the world having an $11,850PPP and although GNI does not measure economic development it is used to measure the ability to buy goods and services . Human development index (HDI) is a composite indicator measurement based on life expediency, education and standard of living GDP, chia in ranked 101st in the world . This growth has led to an increase in the standard of living and a decline in poverty. As differences in the cost of living across the world evolve so does the poverty line. Since 2008, the last update, the poverty line has increased $0.25c to $1.25. As of October 2015, the line has further increased $0.65c to $1.90 . Therefor, between 1981 and 2008, the amount of China s population living on less than $1.25/day isShow MoreRelatedThe Human Development Index ( Hdi )922 Words   |  4 PagesThe Human Development Index (HDI) does a pronounced disservice to India. India, a country that, through economic miracles and perseverance, has risen from the ranks of the poorest in the world to a middle-income country in the span of only a few decades. The HDI Report, which is not universally applicable and applies too much weight in certain areas, makes certain countries look better than they should or, in India’s case, artificially lower its ranking among the world. So, although skewed, whatRead MoreThe Human Development Index ( Hdi )2217 Words   |  9 Pagescontributing to restrained development. This trend became a prominent characteristic during the medieval age in Europe as the feudal system created strong autocrats who treated the poor with scorn and disrespect, and now it is has continued into today’s society (Davis). One of the most notable locations of this trend is Haiti. With staggering poverty rates and deplorable health standards, Haiti has the lowest development rate in the Western Hemisphere (The Haitian People). Haiti’s development is verified byRead MoreThe Inequality Index And Human Development Index ( Hdi ) Between The Two Countries : Brazil And Turkey Essay833 Words   |  4 Pagesmight struggle for development. Thus, development is not an easy thing to achieve. Factors such as production levels, inequality and corruption contribute to the country’s human development index. Gender inequality is one of the factors that may lower a country’s human development index, because the inequality creates implications on the development for a country. This essay will contrast and evaluate the ranks of gender inequality index (GII) and human development index (HDI) between the two countries:Read MoreGlobalization And The Human Development Index ( Hdi )1847 Words   |  8 Pagessocioeconomic, political and environmental developments. The components of globalization include GDP, industrialization and the Human Development Index (HDI). The GDP is the  market value  of all fin ished goods and services produced within a country s borders in a year, and serves as a measure of a country s overall economic output.  Industrialization  is a process which, driven by technological innovation, effectuates social change and economic development by transforming a country into a modernizedRead MoreThe Human Development Index ( Hdi ) And The Gdp Per Capita1607 Words   |  7 PagesFor my Mathematical Studies Internal Assessment, I will be studying the relationship between the Human Development Index (HDI) and the GDP per capita (nominal) of various countries. To achieve this task, I will perform the following steps: Collect data regarding HDI and nominal GDP per capita for each country from reliable websites to use in the study. Organize the data collected into a table in an easy to read manner by using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Calculate the correlation coefficientRead MoreGross Domestic Product (Gdp) Is an Inadequate Measure of Societal Well-Being and Should Be Replaced by the Human Development Index (Hdi)2743 Words   |  11 Pagesinadequate measure of societal well-being and should be replaced by the Human Development Index (HDI) Abstract This paper will discuss the anomally of Human Development Index (HDI) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In this discussion I will argue for HDI as a fairer comparison of a country’s overall economic wealth health and social well-being rather than the generally accepted method used by most countries of GDP. HDI allows for a more comprehensive understanding of well-being than purely economicRead MoreBrandt Line Assessment Final Essay1085 Words   |  5 Pagesworld by using updated data. One of the indicators that I decided to use is the HDI (human development index), which provides a complex measure of three dimensions of human development: a healthy life and longevity which is measured by life expectancy, being educated; measured by adult literacy and enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary level and having a decent standard; measured by Gross National Income (GNI)2. HDI is clearly one of the best indicators to use since it takes into account threeRead MoreHuman Devel opment,Family and Society Essay1650 Words   |  7 PagesHUMAN DEVELOPMENT, FAMILY AND SOCIETY Author: S.Aswathi – I MBA SSM School of Management, Komarapalayam. Co-Author: A.Pravinth – I MBA SSM School of Management, Komarapalayam. ABSTRACT This paper gives an overview of Human development, family and society from three angles via., biology, psychology and humanity. In biological terms, this entails growth from a one-celled zygote to an adult human being. Whereas in terms of psychology, it refers to the gradual accumulation of knowledge and is theRead MoreHuman Development Index1635 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic used to rank countries by level of human development and separate very high human development, high human development, medium human development, and low human development countries. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living for countries worldwide. It is a standard means of measuring well-being, especially child welfare. It is used toRead MoreHuman Development Index1601 Words   |  6 Pages The critical difference between most development models and the human development index is that most development models only focus on income while the human development index includes the enlargement of all human choices – economic, political, social and cultural which all affect income. Comparing countries’ Gross National Product/Gross Domestic Product per capita is the most common way of measuring the level of development today. This model of economic growth assessment is based on a weak foundation

What is the Social contract theory Essay - 29901 Words

Write a 1,400- to 1,750-word paper in which you analyze the social contract theory of John Locke and how the values identified are consistent with the criminal justice system and private security settings. Do these values and principles apply to both venues? †¢ What are the key principles associated with Locke’s social contract theory? †¢ How are these principle inculcated in the U.S. Bill of Rights? †¢ How do the principles play out in the criminal justice system and security settings? †¢ Describe freedom in relationship to personal rights and ethical standards and obligations. Write a 1,400- to 1,750-word paper in which you analyze the social contract theory of John Locke and how the values identified are consistent with the†¦show more content†¦vWrite a 1,400- to 1,750-word paper in which you analyze the social contract theory of John Locke and how the values identified are consistent with the criminal justice system and private security settings. Do these values and principles apply to both venues? †¢ What are the key principles associated with Locke’s social contract theory? †¢ How are these principle inculcated in the U.S. Bill of Rights? †¢ How do the principles play out in the criminal justice system and security settings? †¢ Describe freedom in relationship to personal rights and ethical standards and obligations. Write a 1,400- to 1,750-word paper in which you analyze the social contract theory of John Locke and how the values identified are consistent with the criminal justice system and private security settings. Do these values and principles apply to both venues? †¢ What are the key principles associated with Locke’s social contract theory? †¢ How are these principle inculcated in the U.S. Bill of Rights? †¢ How do the principles play out in the criminal justice system and security settings? †¢ Describe freedom in relationship to personal rights and ethical standards and obligations. Write a 1,400- to 1,750-word paper in which you analyze the social contract theory of John Locke and how the values identified are consistent with the criminal justice system and private security settings. Do these values and principles apply to both venues? †¢ What are the key principles associated withShow MoreRelatedLife Without Laws And Regulations Essay879 Words   |  4 Pagesnature? The social contract would introduce and maintain a controlled society in which protects people’s rights to life, liberty and protection of ones property. John Rawls a modern philosopher carries on the social contract tradition alongside philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau developing his own theory of Justice that he states brings upon complete fairness and equality within society the theory of justice, developed in 1971 with the intentions to identify what seems toRead MoreThe Function of a Social Contract1676 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is the Function of a Social Contract? Philosophers have been concerned with the theories of a social contract for thousands of years. Plato mentions the concept in Crito and in Republic. These theories have stemmed from the concept of justice and for our society to be just. I will look at the works of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and finally with John Rawls after which a overall view into the function of a social contract can be derived as well as any problems with the theory(s)Read MoreUtilitarianism And Social Contract Theory1476 Words   |  6 PagesMichelle VanDeren Moral and Political Philosophy June 11, 2016 Reflection Paper Utilitarianism and Social Contract Theory Part I: Utilitarianism in the Work Place While managing a law firm over the past 13 years one of the most consistent issues to deal with is office attire. We have hired numerous employees ranging from 20-30 years of age whose attire did not project a professional appearance. Some of the employees often wore jeans or shirts that clearly showed their tattoos or were too revealingRead MoreThe Basic Moral Standard Is Human Welfare975 Words   |  4 Pagesmoral standard is human welfare. Specifically, my welfare and the welfare of others. Each classical moral theory has propose human welfare. Some theories completely focus on motives while others completely focus on rules or acts. However, each classical ethical theory alone cannot provide a plausible guideline for impartial human welfare without controversy. Multiple-strategies utilitarianism theory is the most suitable because it provides various strategies for general welfare. The multiple-strategiesRead MoreEssay about The Criticism of Social Contract Theories1232 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Tatum Schneidmiller Justice Theory Assignment #1 Ward Churchills criticism of social contract theory clearly applies to classic social contract theories that we discussed.   However, Rawls adds the veil of ignorance concept to his more modern social contract theory.   A) Explain the basics of Rawls and Churchills arguments and how they each criticize classic social contract theories.   B) Discuss whether or not Churchills argument applies to Rawls modification and explain how and why it doesRead MoreEssay on What is the Function of a Social Contract?1637 Words   |  7 Pages What is the Function of a Social Contract? Philosophers have been concerned with the theories of a social contract for thousands of years. Plato mentions the concept in Crito and in Republic. These theories have stemmed from the concept of justice and for our society to be just. I will look at the works of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and finally with John Rawls after which a overall view into the function of a social contract can be derived as well as any problems with theRead MoreSocial Contract Is The Formidable Obelisk For Peacebuilding And Statebuilding1269 Words   |  6 Pages Social Contract is the formidable obelisk for peacebuilding and statebuilding. One of the oldest and widely cited Social Contract theories is the one of theorist’s John Rawls. His theory proposed an objective perspective of the Social Contract concept that was rooted from medieval Europe, this widely accepted principle that â€Å"all men are by nature free and equal† (Lessnoff, 1990, p. 3) made Rawls disparate to his brethren who too theorized this concept. Rawls rendition of the theory was not onlyRead MoreThe Strength Of Rawls Social Contract Theory1160 Words   |  5 PagesThe strength of Rawls’ Social Contract Theory is most obvious when compared with other ethical theories. In my discussion with Professor Hill, it was made apparent to me that I should focus on the main concepts we have discussed in this unit: empathy, rationality, and fallibility. One theory that is easily comparable is Ethical Egoism. Ethical Egoism claims that every action committed by h uman beings must be out of self-interest. Anything done for another individual is considered unethical for anRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke s Theory Of Social Contract Theory1449 Words   |  6 PagesIn this essay, I argue contemporary social contract theory extends itself beyond politics and into philosophy, religion, and literature. I begin by defining social contract theory and explaining the different perspectives of English philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. From there, I will introduce Dostoyevsky’s work, Grand Inquisitor, and conduct an analysis of the relationships between the Grand Inquisitor and his subjects as well as Jesus and his followers. Using textual evidence and uncontroversialRead MoreSocial Contract Theory On The Origin Of State1110 Words   |  5 PagesSOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY Introduction: The social contract theory is one of the oldest theories on the origin of state. This theory came into existence as a reaction against the divine origin theory. The term ‘social’ is something which is connected with the society, while ‘contract’ means an agreement between two or more people. Thus a term of political theory, ‘social contract’ implies an agreement that makes society possible .this theory holds that the state is the voluntary and deliberate agreement

Multinational Corporations free essay sample

Multinational corporations have existed since the beginning of overseas trade. They have remained a part of the business scene throughout history, entering their modern form in the 17th and 18th centuries with the creation of large, European-based monopolistic concerns such as the British East India Company during the age of colonization. Multinational concerns were viewed at that time as agents of civilization and played a pivotal role in the commercial and industrial development of Asia, South America, and Africa. By the end of the 19th century, advances in communications had more closely linked world markets, and multinational corporations retained their favorable image as instruments of improved global relations through commercial ties. The existence of close international trading relations did not prevent the outbreak of two world wars in the first half of the twentieth century, but an even more closely bound world economy emerged in the aftermath of the period of conflict. In more recent times, multinational corporations have grown in power and visibility, but have come to be viewed more ambivalently by both governments and consumers worldwide. Indeed, multinationals today are viewed with increased suspicion given their perceived lack of concern for the economic well-being of particular geographic regions and the public impression that multinationals are gaining power in relation to national government agencies, international trade federations and organizations, and local, national, and international labor organizations. Despite such concerns, multinational corporations appear poised to expand their power and influence as barriers to international trade continue to be removed. Furthermore, the actual nature and methods of multinationals are in large measure misunderstood by the public, and their long-term influence is likely to be less sinister than imagined. Multinational corporations share many common traits, including the methods they use to penetrate new markets, the manner in which their overseas subsidiaries are tied to their headquarters operations, and their interaction with national governmental agencies and national and international labor organizations. WHAT IS A MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION? As the name implies, a multinational corporation is a business concern with operations in more than one country. These operations outside the companys home country may be linked to the parent by merger, operated as subsidiaries, or have considerable autonomy. Multinational corporations are sometimes perceived as large, utilitarian enterprises with little or no regard for the social and economic well-being of the countries in which they operate, but the reality of their situation is more complicated. There are over 40,000 multinational corporations currently operating in the global economy, in addition to approximately 250,000 overseas affiliates running cross-continental businesses. In 1995, the top 200 multinational corporations had combined sales of $7. 1 trillion, which is equivalent to 28. 3 percent of the worlds gross domestic product. The top multinational corporations are headquartered in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan; they have the capacity to shape global trade, production, and financial transactions. Multinational corporations are viewed by many as favoring their home operations when making difficult economic decisions, but this tendency is declining as companies are forced to respond to increasing global competition. The World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank are the three institutions that underwrite the basic rules and regulations of economic, monetary, and trade relations between countries. Many developing nations have loosened trade rules under pressure from the IMF and the World Bank. The domestic financial markets in these countries have not been developed and do not have appropriate laws in place to enable domestic financial institutions to stand up to foreign competition. The administrative setup, judicial systems, and law-enforcing agencies generally cannot guarantee the social discipline and political stability that are necessary in order to support a growth-friendly atmosphere. As a result, most multinational corporations are investing in certain geographic locations only. In the 1990s, most foreign investment was in high-income countries and a few geographic locations in the South like East Asia and Latin America. According to the World Banks 2002 World Development Indicators, there are 63 countries considered to be low-income countries. The share of these low-income countries in which foreign countries are making direct investments is very small; it rose from 0. 5 percent 1990 to only 1. 6 percent in 2000. Although foreign direct investment in developing countries rose considerably in the 1990s, not all developing countries benefited from these investments. Most of the foreign direct investment went to a very small number of lower and upper middle income developing countries in East Asia and Latin America. In these countries, the rate of economic growth is increasing and the number of people living at poverty level is falling. However, there are still nearly 140 developing countries that are showing very slow growth rates while the 24 richest, developed countries (plus another 10 to 12 newly industrialized countries) are benefiting from most of the economic growth and prosperity. Therefore, many people in the developing countries are still living in poverty. Similarly, multinational corporations are viewed as being exploitative of both their workers and the local environment, given their relative lack of association with any given locality. This criticism of multinationals is valid to a point, but it must be remembered that no corporation can successfully operate without regard to local social, labor, and environmental standards, and that multinationals in large measure do conform to local standards in these regards. Multinational corporations are also seen as acquiring too much political and economic power in the modern business environment. Indeed, corporations are able to influence public policy to some degree by threatening to move jobs overseas, but companies are often prevented from employing this tactic given the need for highly trained workers to produce many products. Such workers can seldom be found in low-wage countries. Furthermore, once they enter a market, multinationals are bound by the same constraints as domestically owned concerns, and find it difficult to abandon the infrastructure they produced to enter the market in the first place. The modern multinational corporation is not necessarily headquartered in a wealthy nation. Many countries that were recently classified as part of the developing world, including Brazil, Taiwan, Kuwait, and Venezuela, are now home to large multinational concerns. The days of corporate colonization seem to be nearing an end. Multinational corporations follow three general procedures when seeking to access new markets: merger with or direct acquisition of existing concerns; sequential market entry; and joint ventures. Merger or direct acquisition of existing companies in a new market is the most straightforward method of new market penetration employed by multinational corporations. Such an entry, known as foreign direct investment, allows multinationals, especially the larger ones, to take full advantage of their size and the economies of scale that this provides. The rash of mergers within the global automotive industries during the late 1990s are illustrative of this method of gaining access to new markets and, significantly, were made in response to increased global competition. Multinational corporations also make use of a procedure known as sequential market entry when seeking to penetrate a new market. Sequential market entry often also includes foreign direct investment, and involves the establishment or acquisition of concerns operating in niche markets related to the parent companys product lines in the new country of operation. Japans Sony Corporation made use of sequential market entry in the United States, beginning with the establishment of a small television assembly plant in San Diego, California, in 1972. For the next two years, Sonys U. S. operations remained confined to the manufacture of televisions, the parent companys leading product line. Sony branched out in 1974 with the creation of a magnetic tape plant in Dothan, Alabama, and expanded further by opening an audio equipment plant in Delano, Pennsylvania, in 1977. After a period of consolidation brought on by an unfavorable exchange rate between the yen and dollar, Sony continued to expand and diversify its U. S. operations, adding facilities for the production of computer displays and data storage systems during the 1980s. In the 1990s, Sony further diversified it U. S. facilities and now also produces semiconductors and personal telecommunications products in the United States. Sonys example is a classic case of a multinational using its core product line to defeat indigenous competition and lay the foundation for the sequential expansion of corporate activities into related areas. Finally, multinational corporations often access new markets by creating joint ventures with firms already operating in these markets. This has particularly been the case in countries formerly or presently under communist rule, including those of the former Soviet Union, eastern Europe, and the Peoples Republic of China. In such joint ventures, the venture partner in the market to be entered retains considerable or even complete autonomy, while realizing the advantages of technology transfer and management and production expertise from the parent concern. The establishment of joint ventures has often proved awkward in the long run for multinational corporations, which are likely to find their venture partners are formidable competitors when a more direct penetration of the new market is attempted. Multinational corporations are thus able to penetrate new markets in a variety of ways, which allow existing concerns in the market to be accessed a varying degree of autonomy and control over operations. While no one doubts the economic success and pervasiveness of multinational corporations, their motives and actions have been called into question by social welfare, environmental protection, and labor organizations and government agencies worldwide. National and international labor unions have expressed concern that multinational corporations in economically developed countries can avoid labor negotiations by simply moving their jobs to developing countries where labor costs are markedly less. Labor organizations in developing countries face the converse of the same problem, as they are usually obliged to negotiate with the national subsidiary of the multinational corporation in their country, which is usually willing to negotiate contract terms only on the basis of domestic wage standards, which may be well below those in the parent companys country. Offshore outsourcing, or offshoring, is a term used to describe the practice of using cheap foreign labor to manufacture goods or provide services only to sell them back into the domestic marketplace. Today, many Americans are concerned about the issue of whether American multinational companies will continue to export jobs to cheap overseas labor markets. In the fall of 2003, the University of California-Berkeley showed that as many as 14 million American jobs were potentially at risk over the next decade. In 2004, the United States faced a half-trillion-dollar trade deficit, with a surplus in services. Opponents of offshoring claim that it takes jobs away from Americans, while also increasing the imbalance of trade. When foreign companies set up operations in America, they usually sell the products manufactured in the U. S. to American consumers. However, when U. S. companies outsource jobs to cheap overseas labor markets, they usually sell the goods they produce to Americans, rather than to the consumers in the country in which they are made. In 2004, the states of Illinois and Tennessee passed legislation aimed at limiting offshoring; in 2005, another 16 states considered bills that would limit state aid and tax breaks to firms that outsource abroad. Insourcing, on the other hand, is a term used to describe the practice of foreign companies employing U. S. workers. Foreign automakers are among the largest insourcers. Many non-U. S. auto manufacturers have built plants in the United States, thus ensuring access to American consumers. Auto manufacturers such as Toyota now make approximately one third of its profits from U. S. car sales. Social welfare organizations are similarly concerned about the actions of multinationals, which are presumably less interested in social matters in countries in which they maintain subsidiary operations. Environmental protection agencies are equally concerned about the activities of multinationals, which often maintain environmentally hazardous operations in countries with minimal environmental protection statutes. Finally, government agencies fear the growing power of multinationals, which once again can use the threat of removing their operations from a country to secure favorable regulation and legislation. All of these concerns are valid, and abuses have undoubtedly occurred, but many forces are also at work to keep multinational corporations from wielding unlimited power over even their own operations. Increased consumer awareness of environmental and social issues and the impact of commercial activity on social welfare and environmental quality have greatly influenced the actions of all corporations in recent years, and this trend shows every sign of continuing. Multinational corporations are constrained from moving their operations into areas with excessively low labor costs given the relative lack of skilled laborers available for work in such areas. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the modern consumer to the plight of individuals in countries with repressive governments mitigates the removal of multinational business operations to areas where legal protection of workers is minimal. Examples of consumer reaction to unpopular action by multinationals are plentiful, and include the outcry against the use of sweatshop labor by Nike and activism against operations by the Shell Oil Company in Nigeria and PepsiCo in Myanmar (formerly Burma) due to the repressive nature of the governments in those countries. Multinational corporations are also constrained by consumer attitudes in environmental matters. Environmental disasters such as those which occurred in Bhopal, India (the explosion of an unsafe chemical plant operated by Union Carbide, resulting in great loss of life in surrounding areas) and Prince William Sound, Alaska (the rupture of a single-hulled tanker, the Exxon Valdez, causing an environmental catastrophe) led to ceaseless bad publicity for the corporations involved and continue to serve as a reminder of the long-term cost in consumer approval of ignoring environmental, labor, and safety concerns. Similarly, consumer awareness of global issues lessens the power of multinational corporations in their dealings with government agencies. International conventions of governments are also able to regulate the activities of multinational corporations without fear of economic reprisal, with examples including the 1987 Montreal Protocol limiting global production and use of chlorofluorocarbons and the 1989 Basel Convention regulating the treatment of and trade in chemical wastes. In fact, despite worries over the impact of multinational corporations in environmentally sensitive and economically developing areas, the corporate social performance of multinationals has been surprisingly favorable to date. The activities of multinational corporations encourage technology transfer from the developed to the developing world, and the wages paid to multinational employees in developing countries are generally above the national average. When the actions of multinationals do cause a loss of jobs in a given country, it is often the case that another multinational will move into the resulting vacuum, with little net loss of jobs in the long run. Subsidiaries of multinationals are also likely to adhere to the corporate standard of environmental protection even if this is more stringent than the regulations in place in their country of operation, and so in most cases create less pollution than similar indigenous industries.